Good commentary for non-religious topics

[WhiteWings]

I'm looking for suggestions for a commentary that's very strong on historical background and goes a little more in depth on the non standard words that only occur once or twice in the Bible. Words like 'bdellium'.

And when I search for 'Capernaum' I want more that telling me Jesus visited that town. I want historical background etc.

 

 

[Jordan S]

Both IVP (OT/NT) and Zondervan offer background commentaries.

 

However, it sounds like you might be looking for an encyclopedia or dictionary with dedicated articles like the Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, Eerdmans Dictionary, or IVP's Dictionary of New Testament Background.

 

A popular monograph related to the NT Backgrounds is Ferguson's Backgrounds of Early Christianity.

 

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Here is the Capernaum entry in ZEB, followed by the Capernaum entry in Eerdmans Dictionary:

 

Capernaum kuh-puhr´nay-uhm (Καφαρναούμ G3019 [also Καπερναούμ]; from כְּפַר נַחוּם, “village of Nahum”). A city on the NW shore of the Sea of Galilee that served as Jesus’ Galilean home base (see GALILEE, SEA OF). The city evidently was named after someone called Nahum, but there is no proof that this was NAHUM the prophet. The name of the city does not occur in Scripture outside the Gospels.

 

I. The site. There has been a considerable amount of discussion as to the exact location of Capernaum, and the evidence available now is still not entirely conclusive. Two main sites have been suggested, namely Tell Ḥum and Khirbet (or Khan) Minyeh. The latter is situated along the NW coast of the Sea of Galilee on the edge of the plain of GENNESARET, about 5 mi. from the place where the JORDAN enters the lake; it is 2.5 mi. beyond Tell Ḥum. JOSEPHUS speaks of a place called Capernaum that is “watered by a most fertile spring” (War 3.10.8 §519), and in fact there are springs at ꜥAin et-Tin and ꜥAin et-Tabgha that lie between Khan Minyeh and Tell Ḥum. There is nothing about the distances involved, however, that will enable one to identify the location of Capernaum with one site or the other.

 

View of Capernaum looking W to the Sea of Galilee. The modern Catholic church (octangle) is built over Byzantine remains from the 4th – 5th cent. The partial reconstruction of the white limestone synagogue sits on top of the basalt synagogue foundation dating to the 1st cent.

Image © Dr. James C. Martin

Josephus also informs us that, having been injured in a fall from his horse during operations near Julias (= BETHSAIDA) close to the Jordan, he was carried into a village named Kepharsōkos, evidently a reference to Capernaum (Life 72 §403; the MSS have variant spellings). Some have argued that he would have been carried to the nearest site, which would have been Tell Ḥum. Once again, however, the location of Josephus’s accident is not known with sufficient accuracy to build a strong case; at the same time, both Khan Minyeh and Tell Ḥum were probably close enough to serve the purpose. A number of medieval writers identify Khan Minyeh with Capernaum, but that evidence is rather too late to be convincing.

It is now generally agreed that Tell Ḥum has the best claim to represent the site of Capernaum. Some think that Tanḥum, the name of a Jewish rabbi supposedly buried there, is a variation of Naḥum, and the Arabic Ḥum may be a corruption of this form. Theodosius (6th cent.) and other Christian writers agree with this identification. [Vol. 1, p. 780] EUSEBIUS (Onom. 175.25) places Capernaum 2 mi. from KORAZIN, and this information suits the identification with Tell Ḥum better as well. But the most convincing evidence is provided by the excavations carried out there.

 

II. Archaeology. The archaeological survey failed to find pottery earlier than the Arabic period at Khan Minyeh but found ample examples of Roman pottery at Tell Ḥum. Thus Khan Minyeh was probably not inhabited at the time of Christ. Among the ruins of Tell Ḥum is an octagonal shaped building referred to as PETER’s house; more probably it is the ruins of a church built on the traditional site of the house of Peter (see Matt. 8:14–15; Mk. 1:29–31; Lk. 4:38–39).

By far the most impressive ruin at the site is that of an ancient synagogue, however. The detailed description of the approach to “the synagogue of our Lord” given by a pilgrim named Sylvia in 385 corresponds remarkably with the features of the street that lead up to the synagogue at the site. The building itself was about 65 ft. long and two stories high; and rather than being built of the local black basalt, it was of white limestone. It was a very ornate structure displaying a variety of designs and figures, some of which must have been offenses against the law of Moses if taken literally. The MIDRASH speaks of Capernaum as a place of the minim or “sectaries” (Eccl. Rab. 1.25), and it may be that the synagogue ornamentation was, even in antiquity, considered to be unorthodox.

The building is dated to the 2nd or 3rd cent. A.D., though it may well be a safe assumption that it stands on the site of the synagogue of our Lord’s day mentioned in Lk. 7:5 and built by a Roman centurion. Interestingly, one of the pillars bore the inscription: “Alphaeus, son of Zebedee, son of John, made this column; on him be blessing”—a reminder, perhaps, that the ZEBEDEE family, including JOHN THE APOSTLE and JAMES, were prominent residents of the town (Matt. 4:21; Mk. 1:19; Lk. 5:10). Also discovered was a carved manna-pot from the traditional place by the lintel of the door. This would have been visible from the reading desk of the synagogue, and it may well have been such a view that suggested Christ’s sermon on the bread of life while in the synagogue at Capernaum (Jn. 6:48–59). (See further J. C. H. Laughlin in BAR 19/5 [Sept.-Oct. 1993]: 54–61, 90.)

 

III. Capernaum in the Gospels. Judging by the gospel accounts, Capernaum was a city of some considerable importance. It was there that MATTHEW sat at the “tax office” collecting taxes, possibly on the fish caught in the lake, among other things (Matt. 9:9). It was the home of a high-ranking government official (Jn. 4:46). A Roman centurion with his detachment of soldiers also lived there. Their residence was long and significant enough for the centurion to have provided a synagogue for the local Jewish congregation. The question our Lord asked of Capernaum, “Will you be lifted up to the skies?” seemingly refers to the city’s attitude of pride, and his severe condemnation of the place seems to have been fulfilled in the most literal sense, as evidenced by the difficulty of discovering and identifying the site now (Matt. 11:23; Lk. 10:15).

Jesus seems to have made Capernaum his headquarters in GALILEE after leaving NAZARETH, possibly because it was a larger population center, and possibly also because several of his disciples had [Vol. 1, p. 781] their homes there (Matt. 4:13). It was near this place that he called the fishermen (Matt. 4:18 and parallels) and the tax-collector (Matt. 9:9 and parallels) into his service. Many “mighty works” were done in Capernaum, including the healing of the centurion’s servant (Matt. 8:5–13; Lk. 7:1–10), the nobleman’s son (Jn. 4:46–54), Peter’s mother-in-law (Matt. 8:14–15; Mk. 1:29–31; Lk. 4:38–39), and the paralytic (Matt. 9:2–8; Mk. 2:1–12; Lk. 5:17–26). It was probably also in Capernaum that he raised the daughter of JAIRUS (Matt. 9:18–26; Mk. 5:21–43; Lk. 8:40–56). Here he also cast out the unclean spirit (Mk. 1:21–34; Lk. 4:31–41) and used a little child to teach humility (Matt. 18:1–5; Mk. 9:33–37; Lk. 9:46–50). (See further C. Kopp, The Holy Places of the Gospels [1963], 171–79; V. Tzaferis, Excavations at Capernaum [1988]; NEAEHL, 1:291–96.)

H. G. ANDERSEN

 

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Eerdmans Dictionary: 

 

CAPERNAUM (Heb. kĕp̱ar naḥum;

Gk. Kapharnaoúm)

A city on the northwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee, identified with modern Tell Ḥum (Talḥum). Located just to the west of where the Jordan empties into the Sea of Galilee, Capernaum was a border town separating Herod Antipas’ and Herod Philip’s territory during Jesus’ ministry. No texts prior to the 1st century C.E. mention Capernaum, and it is doubtful that the Nahum in its name refers to the OT prophet. Josephus twice anecdotally mentions Capernaum without giving it any political or cultural significance: he once fell off his horse near there, and he (perhaps incorrectly) identified the “Springs of Heptapegon” as the “Springs of Capernaum” (Vita 403; BJ 3.520). Later rabbinic literature notes Capernaum’s association with the minim, an unorthodox Jewish group (which some simply assume to be Jewish-Christians; cf. Qoh. Rab. 1.8).

Archaeological excavations fill the void left in literary texts for Capernaum. More than a century of excavations have unearthed some walls and sherds from the Bronze Age, but the most significant remains date to the Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic periods. The most imposing structures are the 4th-century synagogue and the 5th-century octagonal church. The synagogue is one of the largest in Israel; its white limestone facades stood in stark contrast to the black basalt houses that encircled it. Of interest because of parallel names in the NT is an Aramaic inscription on a column from the Byzantine period that reads “Alphaeus, son of Zebedee, son of John, made this column; may he be blessed (CIJ, 982–83). Whether a basalt floor underneath this synagogue represents a 1st-century synagogue or not is disputed. The 5th-century octagonal church known as St. Peter’s House was rebuilt on a 4th-century house church. Christian graffiti makes it likely that this was the site mentioned by the 4th-century pilgrim Egeria as the “house of the prince of the apostles.” One speculates that the remains under this structure, the so-called insula sacra which was built in the 1st century B.C.E. and occupied in the 1st century C.E., were associated with Peter (Mark 1:29-31). Recent excavations have also uncovered a small bathhouse, analogous to those used by Roman soldiers stationed along Rome’s borders. The obvious link to the Capernaum centurion mentioned in the NT is undermined by the bathhouse’s likely date to the late 1st or 2nd century (Matt. 8:5-13 = Luke 7:1-10).

More significant than these later structures for understanding the life of Jesus has been the picture of 1st-century Capernaum that the excavations paint: crudely made basalt houses reinforced with mud and dung and covered with thatched roofs (cf. Mark 2:1-12). Houses consisted of rooms and animal pens centered around a central beaten earth courtyard. The unpaved roads, the crudely made harbor, and the lack of public Graeco-Roman architectural features renders the Gospel’s use of Gk. pōlis hardly appropriate in its proper technical sense (Matt. 9:1; Luke 4:31). With a population of no more than 1500, it was a large village that profited from fishing, as the many fishhooks found there indicate. A 1st-century boat salvaged by archaeologists at nearby Kibbutz Ginnosar provides a good illustration of the type of small boat used by Galilean fishermen. A Roman milestone dating to the early 2nd century confirms that a major road led through Capernaum towards Syria, and Matthew’s traditional identification as a tax collector can perhaps more precisely be tied to border tolls (Matt. 9:9).

 

Ruins of the 4th-century C.E. synagogue at Capernaum, a basilica with gabled roof. Its richly ornamented architectural details are unique among the synagogues of Palestine (Consulate General of Israel in New York)

 

The Gospels indicate that Jesus’ ministry centered around Capernaum, and it would not be inaccurate to label it his base of operations. Matt. 4:13 states that Jesus left Nazareth for Capernaum, and Mark 2:1 describes Jesus as being “at home” there. The Gospels record several miracles as having occurred in Capernaum, including the healing of a paralytic who was lowered through an opening in the roof where Jesus was preaching (Mark 2:1-12) and the exorcism of an unclean spirit from a man in the synagogue (1:23–28). Five of the disciples were chosen in or near Capernaum: Peter and Andrew were from Capernaum and were called to follow Jesus near there (Mark 1:16, 29), James and John were fishing nearby when they were called (1:21), and Matthew’s toll booth was apparently stationed there (Matt 9:9-13). Jesus’ unique relationship with Capernaum is perhaps nowhere more apparent than in the vehement woe against Capernaum for its refusal to respond to his teachings (Matt. 11:23).

Bibliography. S. Loffreda, A Visit to Capharnaum (Jerusalem, 1972); Loffreda and V. Tzaferis, “Capernaum,” NEAEHL 1:291–96; J. L. Reed, The Population of Capernaum. Institute for Antiquity and Christianity Occasional Paper 24 (Claremont, 1993); J. E. Taylor, Christians and the Holy Places (Oxford, 1993).

Jonathan L. Reed

[ukfraser]

I quite like sacred bridge for these sorts of question

 

Our most plentiful literary witness to the village of Capernaum is the New Testament. Jesus moved to Capernaum after his rejection in Nazareth (Mt 4:13), and it was subsequently known as “his own city” (Mt 9:1). A number of Jesus’ disciples were chosen there (Mt 4:13–22, 8:5–22, 9:1–34; Mk 1:21–34, 2:1–17; Lk 7:1–10), and he is reported to preach in the synagogue on more than one occasion (Lk 4:31; Jn 6:59). Jesus is also found in the house of Peter, which is described in Capernaum (Lk 4:38).

The only other first-century witness to Capernaum comes from Josephus. He reports that he was carried to the village of Capernaum (εἰς κώμην Κεφαρνωκόν) when he was wounded in battle near Bethsaida (Life 403). Otherwise, his only reference to the town is in his description of the western region of the Lake of Gennesaret. It is the first-century eyewitness description that challenged nineteenth-century explorers, who desired to rediscover this important city from the Gospels. After describing the fruitfulness of the plain of Gennesar, Josephus continues,

 

. . . besides being favored by its genial air, the country is watered by a highly fertilizing spring, called by the inhabitants Capharnaum (Καφαρναοὺμ); some have imagined this is to be a branch of the Nile, from its producing a fish resembling the coracin found in the lake of Alexandria. The region [i.e. Gennesar] extends along the border of the lake that bears its name for a length of thirty furlongs and inland to a depth of twenty. Such is the nature of this district. (War 3:519–521)

 

According to his description, the region that coursed along the northwest edge of the lake was known as Gennesar, and within its limits was an area of springs known by the name Capernaum. The historian makes no mention of a village in his description, perhaps an unconscious omission because his attention was focused on the natural surroundings.

Nevertheless, what early explorers found most puzzling was the mention of the springs of Capernaum (cf. Robinson and Smith 1856: 3:350–352). Those familiar with today’s setting of Capernaum, recognize that within the vicinity of the site there are no springs. Instead, 3 miles (5 km) to the west are springs known locally as Tabgha, a corruption of its Greek name Heptapegon (i.e. seven springs). It is partially because of Josephus’ description of the springs of Capernaum that Robinson disagreed with Wilson’s suggestion of Tell Ḥûm, site of present-day Capernaum, and was compelled to identify Tell Minyeh (Tabgha; cf. Robinson and Smith 1856: 3:348–358) as first-century Capernaum.

Prior to modern exploration, the first Christian pilgrim to record their visit was Egeria (c. fifth century ce). Her itinerary is preserved in the writings of Peter the Deacon. In her journey to Galilee, she recounts a visit to Capernaum.

 

Moreover, in Capernaum the house of the prince of the apostles has been made into a church, with its original walls still standing. It is where the Lord healed the paralytic. There is also the synagogue where the Lord cured a man possessed by the devil. The way in is up many stairs, and it is made of dressed stone. (Wilson 1999:97)

 

Egeria was followed three centuries later by Bishop Arculf (c. 700 CE). He directed his visit to Capernaum, not a great distance beyond “where the loaves were blessed” (i.e. Tabgha).

 

Arculf saw this place (i.e. Capernaum) from a neighboring hill, and observed that it has no walls, but lies on a narrow piece of ground between the mountain and the lake. On the shore, towards the east, it extends a long way, having the mountain on the north and the water on the south.

(Wright 1969:9)

 

Only a few years later (c. 724 CE), he was followed by Willibald, who traveled in the same direction as Egeria and Arculf, leaving north from Tiberias along the shore of the lake.

 

And thence they went round the sea, and by the village of Magdalum to the village of Capernaum, where our Lord raised the prince’s daughter. Here was a house and a great wall, which the people of the place told them was the residence of Zebedaeus with his sons John and James. And thence they went to Bethsaida, the residence of Peter and Andrew, where there is now a church on the site of their house. (Wright 1969:16–17)

 

Two details from Willibald’s journal are important for our consideration. First, he describes Capernaum with a great wall, while Arculf is explicit that the village had no walls. Further, Willibald relates that in Capernaum he was shown the house of “Zebedaeus with his sons John and James,” while in Bethsaida he saw a church on the place of Peter and Andrew’s house. While Willibald may have confused Capernaum for Bethsaida, he is in agreement with Arculf in his omission of a church at Capernaum in his day.

Modern archaeological excavations at Capernaum have uncovered a city laid out with a Hippodamian (orthogonal) street plan (Corbo 1992: 1:866–867). Several insulae-style houses have been uncovered and partially restored. Excavators have determined that resettlement of the city began in the Persian period and grew throughout the Hellenistic and Roman periods. It fell into disrepair and was abandoned during the Islamic invasion in the seventh century ce. This state of affairs fits the description of the eighth-century visitors to Capernaum.

Two structures have drawn considerable attention. As we have noted, Byzantine Christian pilgrims were shown a church built upon the house of Peter. Excavations have uncovered a series of sanctuaries that likely correspond to these testimonies. Archaeologists suggest that the beginnings of veneration for this location began in a domus ecclesia (Loffreda 1993:295). Epiphanius records that Joseph of Tiberias was authorized by the emperor Constantine to build the church in Capernaum (Epiph. Adv. haer. 30.4.1). The archaeological evidence suggests that the earlier house was transformed into a church, and it is likely this structure is that which Egeria visited in the late fourth century ce. In the second half of the fifth century an octagonal church was erected. As we have noted, the testimony of the eighth-century pilgrimage to Capernaum may indicate that the church no longer existed at this time.

The synagogue of Capernaum that dates to the fourth or fifth century is built in an early Galilean style and is the largest synagogue discovered in the Land of Israel. It was first partially excavated by Kohl and Watzinger (Kohl and Watzinger 1973:4–40). Their efforts were later followed by the Franciscan custody of the Holy Land. Two synagogues have been identified on the same location. The later limestone synagogue is the one visited by Egeria, who describes its many steps and cut stones. Forming the foundation of the Byzantine synagogue are the remains of walls from what is proposed to be an earlier synagogue, perhaps dating to the first century ce. This structure would then be the synagogue mentioned in the Gospels in which Jesus taught.

Finally, a malediction by R. Issi in the third century CE against the heretics of Capernaum (Koh. Rab. 1,8) indicates that Judeo-Christians lived among the Jewish community of Capernaum in the late Roman period. Indeed, Epiphanius testifies that still in the fourth century CE among the Jewish communities of “Tiberias, Diocaesarea, also called Sepphoris, Nazareth, and Capernaum they take care to have no foreigners living among them” (Epiph. Adv. haer. 30.11.10). The continuance of an observant Jewish community in the Byzantine period in Capernaum may also be indicated by the discovery of a sixth-century CE Aramaic inscription in the floor of the synagogue at Hammath Gader, “which mentions a donor named Yosse bar Dosti of Capernaum” (Tzaferis 1993:292).

The historical and material witness of the community at Capernaum serves as a caution against the premature imposition by scholars of “the parting of the ways” upon Judaism and Christianity uniformly at an early period. At Capernaum and elsewhere in Roman-Byzantine Palestine, the archaeological evidence points to coexistence. At a minimum, the evidence adds further challenge to the erroneous assumption that the Birkhat ha-Minnim in its earliest form expressed Jewish antipathy towards nascent Christianity (cf. Flusser 2002b:58–99).

[WhiteWings]

Brothers, thanks for your advise! I've put several items on my wish list.



Jordan and other Accordance team members. Please consider far more info with the resources you sell.

'Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible' has screen shot that shows a picture with a few lines of text. I wouldn't buy the item based on that. I'm far more impressed by what Jordan S quoted. Now I'm planning to buy it. Isn't it possible to do things similar to what Amazon does with it's ebooks. Generating an automated preview of a few (random) pages of the book?